心房颤动抗凝治疗出血的预防与处理
心房颤动(房颤)是临床上最常见的心律失常之一,我国的人群患病率约为0.8%[1],且发病率随年龄增长而增加。同正常人群相比,房颤具有很高的致死率和致残率,血栓栓塞并发症是其致残、致死的主要原因。房颤患者发生卒中的风险是正常人的 5~6倍,年发生率为5%,预防脑卒中对房颤患者显得尤为重要。口服抗凝药是目前预防房颤血栓栓塞并发症最有效的方法,调整剂量的华法林可使房颤卒中的相对危险降低68%,优于单用或双联抗血小板治疗,三期临床试验结果表明新型抗凝药(达比加群、利伐沙班、阿哌沙班等)的预防血栓栓塞至少不劣于与华法林[2-7]。然而,由于对出血并发症的担心,华法林临床应用严重不足[8],目前国内房颤患者华法林临床应用率尚不到10%。出血的危险因素往往与卒中的危险因素相互叠加,抗凝药物与食物、其他药物之间的相互作用。当前的一些出血风险评估方法尚未得到充分地验证。抗凝药特别是华法林在老年患者中的广泛应用使颅内出血的发生率表现出增长趋势[9]。口服法华林抗凝治疗的患者中,严重出血的年发生率波动在1.0%~7.2%之间[10],而这些数据多来自于临床研究,在临床实践中可能会更高(表1)。在房颤抗凝治疗前慎重评估出血风险,治疗过程中充分地认识、预防和处理出血并发症非常重要,2011年,欧洲心律学会(European Society of Cardiology,EHRA)发布的《房颤患者中出血风险评估和管理共识》再次强调了房颤抗凝治疗风险,为出血的预防和处理提出了建议[10]。出血的定义
大多数临床研究对房颤患者严重出血事件定义类似,包括致死性出血、血红蛋白降低20g/L以上或输至少2个单位压积红细胞的出血以及重要部位或器官出血(如颅内、腹膜后、椎管内、眼内、心包内、非创伤性关节内出血)等[26]。尽管多数临床研究为方便对比抗凝治疗的安全性而广泛采纳国际血栓和止血协会科学标准化委员会( International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis,ISTH)提出的出血并发症定义[27],需要指出的是,在既往临床研究中同属严重出血并发症的范畴,既可能是威胁生命的颅内出血或可造成脏器永久损害的出血事件,也可能是血红蛋白下降2~3g/dl穿刺部位无症状出血或鼻出血等。所以,在临床实际应用中要区别对待,有些需要紧急处理甚至急诊手术,有些可能仅需暂停抗凝治疗。
出血事件对临床预后的影响
目前有关出血对房颤患者临床预后影响的报道不多,但严重出血事件极可能成为不良预后的信号或原因。出血事件对临床预后的影响不仅与出血部位、出血性休克进展程度有关,还受输血和频繁停止抗凝治疗带来的负面作用等因素影响。颅内出血或自发性出血往往比颅出血或操作导致的出血预后差。失血后血红蛋白浓度降低导致组织氧合作用下降、交感神经兴奋、血流动力学改变、心输出量增加以及凝血机制的激活均可能在短期内对患者预后产生不良影响。出血风险高的患者往往是老年人或合并有其他疾病,如肝肾功能不全、高血压或既往曾发生过出血或卒中等,而这部分人一旦发生出血,临床预后往往比较差。
抗凝出血的影响因素
出血并发症的影响因素主要包括抗凝强度、监测质量、患者相关因素及联合用药等(表2)。充分地认识这些危险因素有助于及早识别出高危人群而避免过于严格的抗凝治疗,对可逆因素进行早期干预。
抗凝强度和监测质量 抗凝强度是房颤患者发生出血并发症最为重要的因素。国际标准化比值(International normalized ratio,INR)>3.0的严重出血事件发生率是INR2.0~3.0者的2倍[28]。一项回顾性分析华法林抗凝后颅内出血危险因素的研究发现,INR每增加0.5,颅内出血的风险翻倍[29];对抗凝强度监测力度不足亦是出血的危险因素。SPORTIF III 和SPORTI V(Stroke Prevention using an Oral Thrombin Inhibitor in atrial Fibrillation III and V)研究中用以评价抗凝监测质量的指标是INR达到治疗范围的时间即达标时间,研究结果提示,达标时间<60%的患者年病死率(4.2% vs 1.7%)和年严重出血发生率(3.9% vs 1.6%)均显著高于达标时间>75%的患者[30]。ACTIVE W(Atrial Fibrillation Clopidogrel Trial with Irbesartan for Prevention of Vascular Events)研究也得出了相似的结论[31]。在专科门诊中,房颤患者能够得到系统而规范的抗凝管理,达标时间也会相应增加,而更为频繁的家庭自我监测似乎并没有相应提高抗凝药物和降低风险[25]。
年龄 随年龄增大,抗凝治疗的严重出血风险增加。年龄大于85岁者较70~74岁者颅内出血的相对危险度为2.5(95%CI:2.3-9.4)[32]。在AFFIRM(Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management)研究中,年龄每增加1岁严重出血并发症的风险增加约5%[33]。
遗传因素 遗传因素同样影响着抗凝的出血风险,遗传因素决定个体的药物敏感性,相同剂量的抗凝药在不同患者中可以产生迥异的效果。至今已发现至少有30种基因与华法林的代谢有关,编码细胞色素P450 2C9酶(CYP2C9)基因的单核苷酸多态性可显著改变华法林的代谢,从而影响药物发挥初始效应的速度以及INR达到治疗范围所用的维持剂量[34]。编码维生素K环氧化物还原酶亚单位1酶(VKORC1)的不同基因突变也与华法林的敏感性有关[35]。事实上,已经有预测华法林维持剂量的模型纳入了遗传因素[36]。
伴随疾病 既往出血史和贫血也是房颤患者出血的危险因素,卒中病史不仅是缺血性卒中的预测因子,更是颅内出血的危险因素,收缩压高于140mmHg同样能够增加出血性卒中和缺血型卒中的风险[26]。Levi M等[37]观察了1,986例服用维生素K拮抗剂患者的临床特征发现合并肾功能不全和肝脏疾病均是出血并发症的独立危险因素,使出血事件发生率成倍增加。AFFIRM研究亦证实,合并肝肾功能不全使出血风险显著增加(HR=1.9; 95% CI, 1.3-2.9),心功能不全也增加出血风险[33]。
联合用药 联合用药尤其是合并冠心病的房颤患者服用抗小板药物能够增加出血风险。两项荟萃分析显示:口服抗凝治疗联用阿司匹林发生严重出血事件的相对风险分别为2.4 (95% CI, 1.2–4.8)和2.5(95% CI, 1.7–3.7)[38, 39]。2009年的一项入选40,812例心肌梗死患者的注册研究再次证实,口服抗凝药联合阿司匹林或氯吡格雷可带来更高的出血事件发生率[40]。随着冠心病诊治规范化的普及,特别是合并冠心病的老年房颤患者逐年增多,长期抗凝治疗联合抗血小板治疗的安全性也势必将成为一个热点。此外,非甾体类抗炎药和过度饮酒则与胃肠道出血密切相关。当维生素K拮抗剂与非甾体类抗炎药合用时因胃肠道出血的住院率是正常人群的11倍[41]。
抗凝出血的危险分层
抗凝治疗前的出血风险评价应作为患者整体评估的一部分。临床上可用以评价抗凝出血风险的危险分层方案多是基于患者自身的临床特征和治疗特点,有助于临床医生更为准确的判断个体在抗凝治疗时的风险获益比,主要包括mOBRI(modified Outpatient Bleeding Risk Index)积分[42]、 HEMORR2HAGES(Hepatic or renal disease, Ethanol abuse, Malignancy, Older (aged>75), Reduced platelet count, Re-bleeding risk, uncontrolled Hypertension, Anaemia, Genetic factors (CYP 2C9 single nucleotide polymorphisms), Excessive fall risk, previous Stroke/TIA)积分[43]、HAS-BLED(Hypertension, Abnormal renal/liver function, Stroke, Bleeding history or pre-disposition, Labile INR, Elderly (>65), Drugs/alcohol concomitantly)积分[44]、Shireman等[45]和Fang等[46]提出的分层方案(表3)。 mOBRI积分是由Beyth等于1998年在OBRI评分的基础上改进而成。Aspinall等[47]在老年房颤患者中验证该积分,发现其对出血中危和高危人群的预测价值很高,对低危患者的预测价值有限。其余的评价方案均来自大型临床研究的回顾性分析,如HEMORR2HAGES积分来自NRAF研究,HAS-BLED评分来自EHS队列研究,Shireman等的危险分层方案来自NRAF(National Registry of Atrial Fibrillation)研究和Medicare研究数据库,而Fang等提出的方案则来自ATRIA(AnTicoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation)研究。其中HAS-BLED积分是最近发表的出血风险评分方法,由于其对房颤患者出血风险具有良好的预测作用,目前欧洲房颤诊疗指南和加拿大房颤诊疗指南均将其列为房颤抗凝出血的评估指标。虽然以上评估方法中所涉及的危险因素各不相同且各自存在局限性,但它们使临床医生逐渐意识到在为房颤患者制定长期抗凝方案时需要更多的考虑方案带来的出血风险。
出血的预防
严密监测INR 开始服用华法林3~5天时须监测INR,以后每周测定1次并及时调整用量,待INR达到目标值并稳定后可以4周测定l次。而对于INR一直都很稳定的患者,第9版美国胸科医师学会(American College of Chest Physicians,ACCP)临床实践指南建议监测频率可以放宽到12周(2B类推荐),期间需密切观察出血表现,若INR波动范围在≤0.5时可不调药,1~2周后复查(2C类推荐)[48]。此外,应该加强对患者的宣教,使其了解影响华法林疗效的食物、药物等因素以尽量避免对INR的稳定也很重要。
房颤导管消融围手术期 房颤导管消融围手术期的出血并发症与术前术中的抗栓治疗关系不大,往往与操作因素如血管穿刺、房间隔穿刺以及消融产生的损伤等有关。既往文献报道[49],围手术期心包填塞的发生率约为1.0%,穿刺部位出血为1.0~2.0%。为避免出血并发症并尽快调整抗凝方案,2008年欧洲心律失常学会发表专家共识建议术前停用华法林而以肝素过渡[50],不过也有学者认为术中继续口服抗凝药是同样安全有效的[51]。2012年房颤导管消融专家共识建议,围手术期继续口服抗凝药并不影响术中肝素的应用,而术后需要至少2个月的抗凝治疗,然后根据CHADS2或CHA2DS2VASc积分,卒中风险高的患者应继续抗凝。但对于低危患者,究竟术后抗凝需要持续多长时间尚无定论。
起搏器或埋藏式心律转复除颤器(Implantable cardioverter defibrillator,ICD)植入 2010年欧洲心脏病学会(European Society of Cardiology,ESC)房颤指南建议[52],对于非瓣膜病性房颤在植入或替换起搏器、ICD时可以暂停抗凝治疗;对于卒中的高危患者(既往发生过卒中、短暂脑缺血发作和系统性栓塞)应该以肝素或低分子肝素作为过渡。ACCP-9建议[53]:对于机械瓣膜置换术后的患者,应该使用肝素或低分子肝素替代治疗,同时“推荐”CHADS2积分5~6分和“建议”CHADS2积分3~4分的房颤患者使用肝素或低分子肝素作为过渡。
房颤合并冠心病 (1)合并稳定性冠心病时,可以考虑华法林单用;发生急性冠状动脉综合征时,短期联用抗凝与双联抗血小板药物,但须密切观察出血情况,待病情稳定后恢复华法林单用;(2)出血风险高的房颤患者(HAS-BLED积分≥3分)应选择金属裸支架,择期经皮冠状动脉介入治疗(PCI)术后1个月内三联用药即华法林+阿司匹林≤100 mg/d+氯吡格雷75 mg/d,后终生单用华法林;ACS急诊PCI术后1个月内三联用药同上,2~12个月二联用药即华法林+氯吡格雷75 mg/d或阿司匹林100mg/d,后终生单用华法林;(3)术前评估低、中出血风险的房颤患者可以选择金属裸支架或药物洗脱支架。择期PCI术后,若选择药物洗脱支架,前6个月三联用药同上,7~12个月二联用药同上,后终生单用华法林;若选择金属裸支架前1个月三联用药,后终生单用华法林;ACS急诊PCI后,不论何种支架,前6个月三联用药,7~12个月二联用药,后终生单用华法林[52]。
出血的处理
出血的处理措施主要包括3个方面:维持循环稳定,局部控制(介入或手术止血)和规范的输血治疗。如果发生严重出血,首先要逆转抗凝药的抗凝作用,但鉴于停用抗凝药存在血栓栓塞的风险,尤其对于瓣膜置换术后的房颤患者,故目前尚无最佳的处理策略。拮抗华法林抗凝作用的最直接方法就是应用维生素K1。对于INR较高但无出血征象的患者是否应该使用维生素K1尚有争议,一项随机对照临床研究提示,对INR4.5~10但无出血表现的患者给予1.25mg的维生素K1后并未减少出血并发症[54];对有明显出血表现的患者应考虑应用维生素K1。维生素K1可口服或是静脉注射,静注后INR在2小时内即开始下降,12~16小时降至正常水平,口服后给药则需要24小时才能将INR降至正常,皮下注射生物利用度低,应避免肌肉注射。2003年ACC(American College of Cardiology)/AHA (American Heart Association)发表的华法林应用指南中对抗凝过度的处理建议[55]如下:
(1)INR<5.0时,临床上无明显出血,不需要快速逆转INR,可将华法林减量或停服一次,并从小剂量开始应用,直至INR达到目标范围;
(2)INR在5.0~9.0之间,病人无出血及高危出血倾向,可停用华法林l~2次,INR降到目标范围后从小量开始使用;如果病人出血危险性高,可停用华法林一次同时口服维生素K1(1~2.5mg);
(3)急诊手术和拔牙时需要快速降低INR,可口服维生素K12~5mg,INR将在24小时内降低;
(4)INR>9但临床上无明显出血,可口服维生素K13~5mg,INR将在24~48小时内降低,必要时可重复使用;
(5)有严重出血或华法林过量(INR>20)时,可根据情况应用维生素K1 10mg,新鲜血浆和凝血酶原复合物缓慢静脉输注。每12小时可重复给予维生素K1;
(6)出现威胁生命的出血或严重的华法林过量,可用凝血酶原复合物替代治疗,同时缓慢静注维生素K110 mg,必要时重复使用。ACCP-9的建议[48]则相对简单,INR在4.5~10之间时,应停用华法林,INR降到目标范围后从小量开始使用;INR>10则应口服维生素K1;若出现严重出血,必须用凝血酶原复合物替代治疗,同时缓慢静注维生素K15~10 mg。
新型抗凝药物
目前,直接凝血酶抑制剂-达比加群已获批准在美国、欧洲和加拿大上市。与华法林相比,达比加群的药代动力学特点和安全性使其成为需要长期抗凝但出血风险高的房颤患者更好选择。在RE-LY( Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulation Therapy)研究中[5],达比加群110mg疗效与华法林相当,大出血风险更低;达比加群150mg疗效优于华法林,大出血风险与华法林相当。达比加群在房颤消融术后抗凝治疗中的安全性和有效性也得到了验证[56]。凝血因子Xa抑制剂如利伐沙班和阿哌沙班相对于华法林的安全性和有效性也成为了研究的热点并显示出令人鼓舞的结果[6, 7]。直接凝血酶抑制剂和凝血因子Xa抑制剂半衰期相对短,这样就给出血并发症的处理及介入或外科术中抗凝带来了方便。然而这些抗凝剂的主要缺点是缺乏有效的拮抗剂。新近的一项随机、双盲、安慰剂对照的临床试验研究,12名健康男性志愿者接受了利伐沙班20 mg bid或达比加群150 mg bid为期2天半的用药,随后接受了50 IU/kg 的凝血酶原复合物(Cofact)或者同等容积的生理盐水,结果提示凝血酶原复合物能够立即、完全逆转利伐沙班的抗凝作用,然而对达比加群的抗凝作用则没有影响[57]。
总之,房颤的抗凝治疗需要平衡获益(卒中率减少)与风险(出血率增加),遵循指南抗凝治疗前认真评估出血风险、选择合理的抗凝方案、定期随访;对于已经发生出血的患者,应积极的对症处理将出血造成的危害降至最小,并针对病因及时处理。
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